The Rise Of Nationalism In Europe

CBSE NCERT Class 10 History (Chapter 1)

The Rise Of Nationalism In Europe

Facts That Matter

Nationalism emerged as a powerful force in the nineteenth century, bringing significant transformations to Europe's political landscape and societal mindset, ultimately leading to the rise of the nation-state.

A nation-state is characterized by a shared sense of identity among the majority of its population, extending beyond the rulers alone.

Frederic Sorrieu, a French artist, envisioned a world of "democratic and social republics" and actively promoted the ideals of nationalism through his art.

The French Revolution And The Idea Of The Nation

1. The first overt expression of nationalism occurred in France during the French Revolution of 1789.

2. It said that the people will now form the country and define its destiny.

3. Politico-constitutional developments were visible. For instance,

i) The monarch's sovereignty is transferred to the French people.

ii) A sense of collective identity amongst the French people was created through various measures and practices.

4. Napoleon utilised revolutionary ideals in order to rationalise and streamline the whole system.

5. The Civil Code of 1804 was enacted, often referred to as the Napoleonic Code. The system saw significant changes with the simplification of administrative divisions, the development of transportation and communication systems, the elimination of guild limitations, the standardisation of weights and measurements, and the adoption of a single currency. Additionally, the right to property was secured.

The Making Of Nationalism In Europe

Eastern and Central Europe were ruled by authoritarian kingdoms, whose domains were populated by a varied range of people. Numerous distinctions made it difficult to develop a feeling of political utility.

The Aristocracy And The New Middle Class

1. Nationalism and the nation-state concept were established. Industrialisation started in the nineteenth century in France and portions of Germany. New social groupings emerged:

1. The working class

2. The middle class.

2. Slowly but steadily, national unity became popular among the educated, liberal middle classes, eventually leading to the removal of aristocratic privileges.

Liberal Nationalism

Liberalism as an ideology emerged, putting an end to the state's meddling in society's economic life. Market freedom was attained, together with the abolition of state-imposed limitations on the movement of commodities and money. Napoleon's administration policies were modified.

The Revolutionaries

1. Fear of repression pushed many liberal-nationalists underground in the years after 1815.

2. In a number of European governments, secret organisations formed to educate revolutionaries and promote their ideas.

3. Giuseppe Mazzini, an Italian revolutionary, became a member of Carbonari's secret society. He then formed two further underground organisations in Marseilles and Berne: Young Italy and Young Europe.

The Age Of Revolutions: (1830-1848)

1. The years 1830-1848 are associated with the era of revolutions. The first upheaval occurred in July 1830 in France. Now, liberal revolutionaries have deposed the Bourbon kings. Louis Philippe was elevated to the position of constitutional king. Belgium seceded from the Netherlands-based United Kingdom of the Netherlands.

2. In 1821, the Greek struggle of independence began.

3. Finally, Greece was recognised as an independent country in 1832 by the Treaty of Constantinople.

A New Conservatism After 1815

1. Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria defeated Napoleon jointly in 1815, and the Treaty of Vienna of 1815 was signed to end the war. The Bourbon family was returned to power under the terms of this treaty, and France lost the lands seized by Napoleon.

2. A succession of states were established along France's borders to prevent further French expansion.

3. In the north, Belgium was established, while in the south, Genoa was annexed by Piedmont. Prussia gained significant additional lands along its western borders, while Austria gained control of northern Italy. Russia received a chunk of Poland, while Prussia received a portion of Saxony.

The Romantic Imagination And National Feeling

Through art and poetry, stories and music, culture aided in the formation of the nation's concept. It aided in the expression and arousal of nationalist views.

Language, too, had a significant part in the formation of nationalist sentiments.

1848: The Revolution Of The Liberals

In 1848, a liberal (educated middle class)-led revolution occurred as well. They demanded constitutionalism in conjunction with national unity.

In the German regions, a considerable number of political organisations convened in Frankfurt and voted for an all-German National Assembly. A constitution was developed for a German country that would be led by royalty but subject to a Parliament.

Hunger, Hardship And Popular Revolt

The 1830s were a period of severe economic distress throughout Europe. Throughout the first part of the nineteenth century, Europe had a massive growth in population, which resulted in increased unemployment.

1. Rural residents relocated to cities to live in overcrowded slums;

2. Small manufacturers in towns faced tough competition from imports of low-cost machine-made goods from England.

3. Peasants toiled under the weight of feudal dues and duties in those parts of Europe where the nobility retained control. Food price increases or a poor crop year resulted in widespread pauperism in both town and country.

4. Food shortages and massive unemployment forced Paris's inhabitants into the streets.

The Making Of German And Italy

Germany - Can The Army Be The Architect Of A Nation?

Following 1848, nationalist sentiments among middle-class Germans were common. The German confederation and Prussia started organising themselves into a German state.

Three wars were fought-the Danish War, the Austro-Prussian War, and the Franco-Prussian War-all of which ended in Prussian triumph and finished Germany's unification process in 1871. Kaiser William of Prussia was proclaimed German Emperor.

Italy Unified

1. Like Germany, Italy suffered from political fragmentation for a lengthy period of time. Italians were dispersed among a number of dynastic states and the multinational Habsburg Empire.

2. Italy was split into seven states in the mid-nineteenth century, of which only one, Sardinia-Piedmont, was controlled by an Italian royal house. Three revolutionaries spearheaded the movement of unification: Giuseppe Mazzini, Count Camillo de Cavour, and Giuseppe Garibaldi.

3. Giuseppe Mazzini organised Young Italy in the 1830s in order to put together a clear platform for an united Italian Republic.

4. In addition to official forces, a huge number of armed volunteers commanded by Giuseppe Garibaldi joined the fray.

5. In 1861, Italy was unified, and Victor Emmanuel-11 was crowned king of the United Italy.

The Strange Case Of Britain

Britain's history of nationalism was distinct from that of the rest of Europe. There was no British nation prior to the seventeenth century. The British Isles were inhabited by individuals of many ethnic origins, including English, Welsh, Scots, and Irish.

In 1707, the Act of Union between England and Scotland established the 'United Kingdom of Great Britain'. As a result, Scotland's unique culture and political institutions were destroyed. In 1801, Ireland was forcefully incorporated into the United Kingdom.

Visualising The Nation

Artists sought a way out in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries by personifying a country. At the time, nations were portrayed as feminine characters.

The feminine figure evolved into a national allegory. Marianne was christened in France, a popular Christian name that emphasised the concept of a people's country. Germania, thus, became a metaphor for the German people.

Nationalism And Imperialism

After 1871, the Balkans became the primary source of nationalist tension in Europe.

The powers (Russia, Germany, England, and Austro-Hungary) were determined to oppose the other nations' grip on the Balkans, which resulted in a succession of conflicts in the area and eventually the First World War.

Nationalism, when combined with imperialism, drove Europe into catastrophe in 1914.

Here you will learn the basics of CBSE Class 10 History Notes Chapter 01-The Rise of Nationalism in Europe in a simple language, it is for CBSE English medium students who are studying under Central Board of Secondary Education following NCERT textbook and curriculum for class 10 here you will find all the necessary and important definitions notes suggestion solved question paper sample papers with video lectures made by expert teachers

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Questions:

Q1. Write A Note On:

(a) Giuseppe Mazzini

(b) Count Camillo de Cavour

(c) The Greek war of independence

(d) Frankfurt Parliament

(e) The role of women in nationalist struggles.

Ans:

1. Giuseppe Mazzini: Giuseppe Mazzini was born in 1807 in Genoa. He was a member of the secret Carbonari group. In 1831, when he was 24 years old, he was sent away because he was planning a revolt in Liguria. He then set up two more secret groups. The first one was in Marseilles, and the second was in Berne. Both were made up of young men with similar ideas from Poland, France, Italy, and Germany. Mazzini thought that God made nations to be the natural groups of people.

2. Count Camillo de Cavour: Cavour was in charge of bringing the different parts of Italy together, but he was neither a revolutionary nor a democratic politician. He spoke French much better than Italian, just like many other wealthy and well-educated members of the Italian elite. In 1859, Austrian soldiers were defeated by Sardinia-Piedmont because Cavour made a smart political alliance with France. Along with regular forces, a large number of armed volunteers led by Giuseppe Garibaldi joined the war.

3. The Greek war of independence: The Greek War of Independence made Europe's educated elite feel more nationalist. Greece has been part of the Ottoman Empire since the 15th century. As revolutionary nationalism grew in Europe, it helped start a fight for Greek independence in 1821. Other Greeks who were living in exile and many West Europeans who liked ancient Greek culture helped the Greek nationalists.

4. Frankfurt Parliament: In the different parts of Germany, a large number of political groups made up of middle-class professionals, businessmen, and wealthy craftsmen got together in Frankfurt and voted for an all-German National Assembly. On May 18, 1848, 831 newly elected MPs marched in a happy parade to the Church of St. Paul in Frankfurt to take their seats in the Frankfurt parliament. They made a constitution for Germany that said a parliament should run a monarchy. When the delegates offered Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia, the crown on these terms, he refused and joined other monarchs in opposing the elected assembly.

• The role of women in nationalist struggles:

Men and women are shown in art about the French Revolution in the same way.

A woman is a symbol of freedom.

Liberal nationalism supported the idea that everyone should be able to vote, which led to women getting involved in nationalist movements in Europe.

Women had set up their own political groups and magazines.

They had been to marches and rallies.

In France, women's clubs have sprung up in more than sixty cities.

The Revolutionary and Republican Women's Society was the most well-known.

One of the most important things they wanted was to have the same political rights as men. They weren't allowed to vote in the Assembly elections, though.

Even though women were active in nationalist struggles, they were given few or no political rights. For example, at the Frankfurt Parliament in the Church of St. Paul, women were only allowed to sit in the visitors gallery and watch.

Q2. What Steps Did The French Revolutionaries Take To Create A Sense Of Collective Identity Among The French People?

Ans: The French revolutionaries took the following actions to instil a feeling of communal identity in the French people:

1. The words "fatherland" (la patrie) and "citizen" (le citoyen) were used for the first time.

2. The tricolour was chosen as the new French flag to replace the royal standard.

3. The Estates General was renamed the National Assembly.

4. In the name of the country, people wrote new songs, took oaths, and remembered the sacrifices of the past.

5. It was decided to set up a system of centralised management.

6. All citizens have the same rules to follow.

7. There are no longer any internal customs fees or charges.

8. A system of standard weights and measures was put into place.

9. Since French was written and spoken in Paris, it became the national language. Regional languages were looked down upon.

10. It was decided that the French nation would free people in Europe from despotism and help other people. become countries.

Q3. Who Were Marianne And Germania? What Was The Importance Of The Way In Which They Were Portrayed?

Ans: In the 1800s, artists made female allegories to represent the whole country. She was given the name Marianne in France, which was a popular Christian name that emphasised the idea of a people's homeland. The red cap, the three colours, and the cockade were all inspired by Liberty and the Republic. Marianne statues were put up in public places to remind people of the national symbol of unity and to get them to identify with it. Images of Marianne can be seen on coins and stamps. So, Germania became a metaphor for the German nation. In pictures, Germania wears a crown of oak leaves, because the German oak is a symbol of heroism.

Q4. Briefly Trace The Process Of German Unification.

Ans: After 1848, democracy and revolution were no longer linked to nationalism in Europe. Conservatives often used nationalist feelings to advance state power and take over Europe's politics.

As a result, Germany and Italy became two separate countries:

1. As a result of Napoleon's administrative efforts, a group of 39 states called a confederation was formed from a group of principalities. Each had its own weights and measures and currency. These things made it hard for the new commercial classes to trade and grow their businesses.

2. In 1834, a customs union, or Zollvere, was formed. It allowed its members to trade freely. During a time when Germany was politically divided, it created real national unity in economic matters. Nationalism was boosted by a wave of economic nationalism,

3. As a result of the French Revolution of 1848, men and women from the liberal middle classes in Germany, which did not have a nation state at the time, called for constitutionalism and national unification.

4. In May 1848, a large number of political groups met in Frankfurt to vote for an all-German National Assembly. This assembly made a constitution for a German nation led by a monarchy and ruled by a parliament. The offer was made to the Prussian King, but he declined it. As a result, the liberal effort to build a nation failed.

5. After that, Prussia and its leader, Otto von Bismarck, who is known as the "father of modern Germany," took on the work of uniting Germany.

6. Bismarck's policy was built on "blood and iron." With the help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy, he reached his goals.

7. Bismarck reorganised the German army and improved battle training in 1862. In 1864, he made a deal with Austria to fight Denmark for Schleiswig, the southern provinces of Denmark, while Austria ruled Holstein. Bismarck started a war with Austria over an unrelated border dispute, and Prussia beat Austria in the Seven Weeks War that followed. Holstein was given to Prussia by the peace treaty, and Austria was forced to stay out of all German matters.

8. Then there was a war with France. Bismarck made up a note from the French envoy in 1870, claiming that the diplomat had insulted the Prussian King. After he leaked this letter to both communities, there were calls for war. At this time, the southern provinces joined Prussia's cause. Prussia went to war with France in 1870, but France was defeated. Alsace Lorraine was given to Germany at the end of the war.

9. In January 1871, Prussian King William I was proclaimed German Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles. As a result, Germany's unification was done. This showed that Prussian state power was better. It was a victory for Bismarck's "blood and iron" policy, which tended to encourage militarism and authoritarianism in Germany. The new state made it a top priority to update Germany's monetary, banking, legal, and judicial systems. Prussian policies and ways of doing things were often copied by the rest of Germany.

Q5. What Changes Did Napoleon Introduce To Make The Administrative System More Efficient In The Territories Ruled By Him?

Ans: Napoleon started putting into place many of the changes he had already made in France in the huge area that was now under his control. Napoleon definitely destroyed democracy in France by going back to monarchy, but he used revolutionary ideas in administration to make the whole system more rational and effective. In 1804, the Napoleonic Code, also called the Civil Code, got rid of all privileges based on birth, made sure that everyone was treated the same by the law, and gave everyone the right to own property. This Code was sent to all of the areas that were controlled by the French. In the Netherlands, Switzerland, Italy, and Germany, Napoleon streamlined administrative divisions, got rid of the feudal system, and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues. In the towns, guild restrictions were also removed. Systems for transportation and communication have been improved. Farmers, craftsmen, workers, and new businessmen all enjoyed their newfound freedom. Businesspeople and small-scale manufacturers of goods realised that having consistent laws, standard weights and measurements, and a single national currency would make it easier to move goods and capital from one region to another.

Q6. What Did Liberal Nationalism Stand For?

Ans: Liberalism as an ideology emerged, putting an end to the state's meddling in society's economic life. Market freedom was attained, together with the abolition of state-imposed limitations on the movement of commodities and money. Napoleon's administration policies were modified.

Q7. How was the history of nationalism in Britain unlike the rest of Europe?

Ans: In Britain, the formation of the nation-state was not the result of a sudden upheaval or revolution. It was the result of a long-drawn-out process. There was no British nation prior to the eighteenth century. The primary identities of the people who inhabited the British Isles were ethnic ones – such as English, Welsh, Scot or Irish. All of these ethnic groups had their own cultural and political traditions. But as the English nation steadily grew in wealth, importance and power, it was able to extend its influence over the other nations of the islands. The English parliament, which had seized power from the monarchy in 1688 at the end of a protracted conflict, was the instrument through which a nation-state, with England at its centre, came to be forged.

The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland that resulted in the formation of the ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’ meant, in effect, that England was able to impose its influence on Scotland. The British parliament was henceforth dominated by its English members. The growth of a British identity meant that Scotland’s distinctive culture and political institutions were systematically suppressed. The Catholic clans that inhabited the Scottish Highlands suffered terrible repression whenever they attempted to assert their independence. The Scottish Highlanders were forbidden to speak their Gaelic language or wear their national dress, and large numbers were forcibly driven out of their homeland

Q8. Why did nationalist tensions emerge in the Balkans?

Ans: The most serious source of nationalist tension in Europe after 1871 was the area called the Balkans. The Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic variation comprising modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro whose inhabitants were broadly known as the Slavs. A large part of the Balkans was under the control of the Ottoman Empire. The spread of the ideas of romantic nationalism in the Balkans together with the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire made this region very explosive.

All through the nineteenth century the Ottoman Empire had sought to strengthen itself through modernisation and internal reforms but with very little success. One by one, its European subject nationalities broke away from its control and declared independence. The Balkan peoples based their claims for independence or political rights on nationality and used history to prove that they had once been independent but had subsequently been subjugated by foreign powers. Hence the rebellious nationalities in the Balkans thought of their struggles as attempts to win back their long-lost independence.

E9. Who were Marianne and Germania? What was the importance of the way in which they were portrayed?

Ans: In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, artists represented the country as if it were a person.

Nations were portrayed as female figures that sought to give the abstract idea of the nation a concrete form.

The female form that was chosen to personify the nation did not stand for any particular woman in a real life.

Thus, in France, she was christened Marianne, a popular Christian name, which underlined the idea of a people’s nation.

Her characteristics were drawn from those of liberty and the Republic – the red cap, the tricolour, the cockade.

Statues of Marianne were installed in public squares to remind the public of the national symbols of unity and to persuade them to identify with it.

Marianne images were marked on coins and stamps too.

Similarly, Germania became the allegory of the German nation. In visual representations, Germania wears a crown of oak leaves, because the German oak stands for heroism.

The importance of the way in which they were portrayed was to remind the public of their national symbols of unity and to persuade them to identify with them.

Q10. Briefly trace the process of German unification.

Ans: Nationalist feelings were widespread among middle-class Germans, who in 1848 tried to unite the different regions of the German confederation into a nation-state governed by an elected parliament. This liberal initiative to nation-building was, however, repressed by the combined forces of the monarchy and the military, supported by the large landowners (called Junkers) of Prussia. From then on, Prussia took on the leadership of the movement for national unification. Its chief minister, Otto von Bismarck, was the architect of this process carried out with the help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy. Three wars over seven years – with Austria, Denmark and France – ended in Prussian victory and completed the process of unification. In January 1871, the Prussian king, William I, was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles.

Q11. Explain what is meant by the 1848 revolution of the liberals. What were the political, social and economic ideas supported by the liberals?

Ans: Since the French Revolution, liberalism had stood for the end of autocracy and clerical privileges, a constitution and representative government through parliament. Nineteenth-century liberals also stressed the inviolability of private property. The memory of the French Revolution nonetheless continued to inspire liberals. One of the major issues taken up by the liberal-nationalists, who criticised the new conservative order, was freedom of the press.

Parallel to the revolts of the poor, unemployed and starving peasants and workers in many European countries in the year 1848, a revolution led by the educated middle classes was under way. Events of February 1848 in France had brought about the abdication of the monarch and a republic based on universal male suffrage had been proclaimed. In other parts of Europe where independent nation-states did not yet exist – such as Germany, Italy, Poland, the Austro-Hungarian Empire – men and women of the liberal middle classes combined their demands for constitutionalism with national unification. They took advantage of the growing popular unrest to push their demands for the creation of a nation-state on parliamentary principles – a constitution, freedom of the press and freedom of association.

Q12. What steps did the French revolutionaries take to create a sense of collective identity among the French people?

Ans: From the very beginning, the French revolutionaries introduced various measures and practices that could create a sense of collective identity amongst the French people. The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasized the notion of a united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution. A new French flag, the tricolour, was chosen to replace the former royal standard. The Estates General was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed the National Assembly. New hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated, all in the name of the nation. A centralised administrative system was put in place and it formulated uniform laws for all citizens within its territory. Internal customs duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of weights and measures was adopted. Regional dialects were discouraged and French, as it was spoken and written in Paris, became the common language of the nation.

Q13. Write a note on The Greek war of independence.

Ans: The Greek war of independence, also known as the Greek Revolution was a successful war of~m dependence waged by the Greek revolutionaries between 1821 and 1832 against the Ottoman Empire. The Greeks were later assisted by the Russian Empire, Great Britain, France and several other European powers, while the Ottomans were aided by their vassals, Egypt, Algeria etc.

Events: Greece had been part of the Ottoman Empire since the 15th century. The growth of revolutionary nationalism in Europe sparked off a struggle for independence among st the Greeks which began in 1821.

The object of the struggle was to expel Turks from Europe and to establish old Greek eastern empire.

Nationalists in Greece were supported by other Greeks living in exile and many West European countries.

Poets and artists lauded Greece as the cradle of European civilisation. They mobilised public opinion to support its struggle against a Muslim empire. The English poet Lord Byron organised funds and later went to fight in the war.

Ultimately, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognised Greece as an independent nation. Its independence was guaranteed by Russia, England and France.

Q14. Write a note on Frankfurt parliament.

Ans: Frankfurt Parliament (1848-49) was convened at Frankfurt on May 18, 1848 as a result of the liberal revolution that swept the German states early in 1848.

The parliament was called by a preliminary assembly of German liberals in March 1848 and its members were elected by the direct manhood suffrage. They represented the entire political spectrum and included the foremost German figures of that time.

Its purpose was to plan the unification of Germany.

The conflict among the traditionally separate German states, notably Austria and Prussia made progress difficult.

In March 1849 the parliament adopted a federal constitution of German states, excluding Austria, with a parliamentary government and a hereditary emperor. Frederick William IV of Prussia was chosen emperor but he refused to accept the crown from a popularly elected assembly and the entire scheme failed.

Most of the representatives withdrew and the remainder were dispersed. The parliament, therefore, accomplished nothing as troops were called and the assembly was forced to disband.

Q15. Write a note on Count Camillo de Cavour.

Ans: Cavour was a realist who practiced realistic politics. He allied with France when necessary and with France’s key enemy, Prussia, was necessary.

Cavour used international power to achieve his domestic goals.

He devoted himself to the liberation of northern Italy from Austrian domination. A brilliant and steadfast diplomat, he played a leading role in the unification of Italy.

He was distrustful of the reactionary politics in force throughout Europe, particularly their manifestation in the repressive rule of Austria over a large area of Italy.

He became Prime Minister of Piedmont in 1852. He reorganized its army and it achieved rapid growth in material prosperity. Through a tactful diplomatic alliance with France, Sardinia-Piedmont succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859.

Apart from regular troops, a large number of armed volunteers under the leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi joined the fight. In 1860, they marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of Two Sicilies and with the support of the local peasants drove out the Spanish rulers. Thus, Cavour was ultimately successful in the unification of Italy under King Victor Emmanuel II. He, however, died on June 6, 1861, before the completion of the unification of Italy in 1870. Although Cavour was neither a revolutionary nor a democrat he played an important role in the unification of Italy.

Q16. Write a note on Guiseppe Mazzini.

Ans :Giuseppe Mazzini (1807-1872) was an Italian politician, journalist and activist for the unification of Italy and spearheaded the Italian revolutionary movement. His efforts helped bring about the independent and unified Italy in place of several separate states, many dominated by foreign powers.

He also helped define the modern European movement for popular democracy in a republican state.

Mazzini was a fervent advocate of republicanism and envisioned a united, free and independent Italy.

Unlike his contemporary Garibaldi, who was also a republican, Mazzini never compromised his republican ideas and refused to swear an oath of allegiance to the House of Savoy.

Mazzini was the spiritual force of the Italian resurrection. He joined the Carbonari, a revolutionary organisation and was arrested in 1830. He was sent into exile in 1831 for attempting a revolution in Liguria. He subsequently founded two more underground societies, first – Young Italy in Marseilles and then Young Europe in Berne, whose members were like- minded young men from Poland, France, Italy and the German states.

Mazzini believed that God had intended nations to be the natural units of mankind. So Italy could not continue to be a patchwork of small states and kingdoms. It had to be forged into a single unified republic within a wider alliance of nations. This unification alone could be the basis of Italian liberty. Mazzini was in favour of a republic because he thought sovereignity resides essentially in the people and can only completely express itself in that form. Mazzini’s relentless opposition to monarchy and his vision of democratic republics frightened the conservatives. Metternich described him as ‘the most dangerous enemy of our social order’.

Young Italy’ attempted many insurrections but were unsuccessful. Mazzini failed in his objects because he himself lacked some of the qualities of practical leadership. He underestimated the strength of the opposition. But in spite of these drawbacks he is one of the chief makers of Italy. He was responsible for the growth of patriotism for a country that existed as yet only in the imagination.

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MCQ (Multiple Choice Questions)

1. Who, among the following, hosted the Congress at Vienna in 1815. [AI 2012]

(a) King of the Netherlands

(b) Giuseppe Mazzini

(d) Otto von Bismarck

Ans: c

2. Which one of the following is true about the ‘Treaty of Constantinople’ in 1832. [AI 2012]

(a) It recognised Turkey as an independent nation.

(b) It recognised Greece as an independent nation.

(d) It recognised France as an independent nation.

Ans: b

3. Who among the following formed the secret society called ‘Young Italy’. [Delhi 2012]

(a) Otto von Bismarck

(b) Giuseppe Mazzini

(d) Johann Gottfried Herder

Who among the following took power in the Southern part of Vietnam after the division of the country? [Delhi 2012]

(a) Ngo Dinh Diem

(b) Ho Chi Minh

(d) NLF

Ans: b & a

4. Which one of the following types of government was functioning in France before the revolution of 1789 ?

(a) Dictatorship

(b) Military

(d) Monarchy

Who among the following was known as ‘Colons’ [Delhi 2012]

(a) French citizens living in Vietnam

(b) French citizens living in France

(d) Elites of Vietnam

Ans: d & a

5. Which one of the following statements is false regarding the Act of Union 1707? [Delhi 2011]

(a) It was an agreement between England and Scotland.

(b) It was an agreement between England and Ireland.

(d) It gave England control over Scotland.

Ans: b

6. Which one of the following states was ruled by an Italian princely house before the unification of Italy? [AI 2011]

(a) Kingdom of Two Sicilies

(b) Lombardy

(d) Sardinia-Piedmont

Ans: d

7. Which one of the following statements is not true about Giuseppe Mazzini? [Foreign 2011]

(a) He wanted the united Italian Republic.

(b) He founded an underground society called ‘Young Italy’.

(d) He was exiled for attempting a revolution in Liguria.

Ans: c

8. Who said, “when France sneezes the rest of Europe catches cold”?

(a) Garibaldi

(b) Mazzini

(d) Bismarck

Ans: c

9. Which treaty recognised Greece as an independent nation ?

(a) Treaty of Versailles

(b) Treaty of Vienna

(d) Treaty of Lausanne

Ans: c

10. Who was responsible *for the Unification of Germany ?

(a) Bismarck

(b) Cavour

(d) Garibaldi

Ans: a

11. Which area was known as the powder keg of Europe ?

(a) Germany

(b) Italy

(d) Ottoman Empire

Ans: c

12. Elle, the measuring unit in Germany was used to measure

(a) cloth

(b) thread

(d) height

Ans: a

13. Zolleverin started in 1834 in Prussia refers to a

(a) Trade Union

(b) Customs Union

(d) Farmer’s Union

Ans: b

14. The Ottoman Empire was ruled by the emperor of

(a) Turkey

(b) Russia

(d) Prussia

Ans: a

15. At which of the following places was the Frankfurt Assembly convened

(a) at the church of St. Paul.

(b) at the church of St. Peters.

(d) at the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles.

Ans: d

16. What did the crown of oak leaves symbolise ?

(a) Courage

(b) Heroism

(d) Tolerance

Ans: b

17. By which of the following treaties was the United Kingdom of Great Britain formed?

(a) Treaty of Versailles

(b) Act of Union

(d) Treaty of Vienna

Ans: b

18. Who was Wolfe Tone ?

(a) A French revolutionary.

(b) An Irish Catholic who revolted against British dominance.

(d) A British protestant leader.

Ans: b

19. Which of the following best explain Utopian society ?

(a) A society where everybody is equal.

(b) A democratic society.

(d) A society with a comprehensive Constitution.

Ans: c

20. After the French Revolution (1789) the right to vote was given to

(a) all adult population of the country.

(b) all property-owning male citizens of the country.

(d) all adults excluding women of the country.

Ans: b

21. The main function of the Prussian Zollverein was to

(a) impose a custom duty on imported goods.

(b) abolish the tariff barrier.

(d) impose new rules for trade.

Ans: b

22. Which of the following group of powers collectively defeated Napoleon?

(a) England, France, Italy, Russia.

(b) England, Austria, Spain, Russia.

(d) Britain, Prussia, Russia, Italy.

Ans: c

23. Which of the following countries is considered as the ‘cradle of civilization’?

(a) England

(b) France

(d) Russia

Ans: c

24. The Treaty of Vienna signed in 1815

(a) brought the conservative regimes back to power.

(b) destroyed the conservative powers of Europe.

(d) set up a new Parliament in Austria.

Ans: a

25. Romanticism refers to a

(a) cultural movement

(b) religious movement

(d) literary movement

Ans: a

26. In Prussia, who was referred to as ‘Junkers’?

(a) Military officials

(b) Large landowners

(d) Aristocratic nobles

Ans: b

27. Which of the following is an allegory/attribute for ‘liberty’?

(a) Crown of Oak

(b) Red Cap

(d) Sword

Ans: b

28. What does a blindfolded woman carrying a pair of weighing scales symbolise ?

(a) Peace

(b) Equality

(d) Liberty

Ans: c

29. Who among the following was proclaimed the first King of United Italy ?

(a) Nicholas II

(b) King George II

(d) Victor Emannuel II

Ans: d

30. A nation-state is a state where

(a) people of all groups enjoy equal rights.

(b) where the nation has its own emblem and flag.

(d) a state where people live in a common territory, develop a sense of identity and share a common history.

Ans: d

31. Most important outcome of the French Revolution of 1789 was

(a) the abolition of absolute monarchy.

(b) making of a new Constitution.

(d) Formation of the National Assembly.

Ans: c

32. Identify and mark the incorrect response. The Napoleonic Code

(a) did away with all the privileges based on ‘birth and established equality.

(b) destroyed feudalism in France.

(d) ensured right to property for the privileged class.

Ans: c

33. A large number of people were hostile to the Napoleonic code because

(a) it was not suitable for all.

(b) it destroyed the special privileges of the rulers.

(d) none of the above.

Ans: c

34. For the middle class of Europe, the most important feature of Liberalism was

(a) abolition of conservatism.

(b) right to be liberal and educated.

(d) representative government.

Ans: c

35. Why did the Frankfurt Parliament fail to achieve its goal ?

(a) Women were excluded from the membership.

(b) Did not have the support of the peasants.

(d) None of the above.

Ans: c

Marks - 2/3 Questions

1. Discuss the role of Otto von Bismarck in the unification of Germany.

Ans: Otto von Bismarck, the Prussian Chancellor, was instrumental in the unification of Germany. He pursued a policy of "Blood and Iron," emphasizing military power and realpolitik. Bismarck orchestrated three wars—against Denmark (1864), Austria (1866), and France (1870-1871)—to isolate rivals and rally German states around Prussia. His strategic diplomacy and use of warfare successfully unified Germany under Prussian leadership in 1871.

2. What was the major change that occurred in the political and constitutional scenario due to the French Revolution in Europe?

Ans : The French Revolution led to the transfer of sovereignty from the monarchy to a body of French citizens. It proclaimed that the people would henceforth constitute the nation and shape its destiny.

3. Explain the role of language in developing nationalist sentiments in Europe.

Ans : Language was a vital tool in fostering nationalist sentiments. It served as a means of unifying people and asserting national identity. For instance, in regions under foreign domination, the promotion of the native language became a form of resistance. In Poland, after the suppression of an armed rebellion against Russian rule, the use of the Polish language in religious services and education became a symbol of national identity and defiance against Russification policies.

4. What was the Treaty of 1832 that recognized Greece as an independent nation?

Ans : The Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognized Greece as an independent nation.

5. Explain any three beliefs of conservatism that emerged after 1815.

Ans : After 1815, conservatism emphasized:

Preserving established institutions like the monarchy, the Church, property, and family.
Modernizing traditional institutions to strengthen them, rather than returning to pre-revolutionary society.
Abolishing feudalism and serfdom, replacing them with a modern army, an efficient bureaucracy, and a dynamic economy to strengthen autocratic monarchies in Europe.

6. Explain the contribution of Otto von Bismarck in German unification.

Ans : Otto von Bismarck played a crucial role in German unification by:

Leading Prussia in wars against Denmark, Austria, and France to unify German territories.
Using diplomacy and strategic alliances to isolate Austria and France.
Promoting nationalism to rally support for unification under Prussian leadership.

7. Explain any three ways in which nationalist feelings were kept alive in Poland in the 18th and 19th centuries.

Ans : In Poland, nationalist feelings were sustained through:

Emphasis on vernacular language: he use of the Polish language in church gatherings and religious instruction became a symbol of resistance against Russian dominance.
Emphasis on the collection of local folklore: collecting and promoting Polish folklore helped preserve national identity and spread nationalist messages among the largely illiterate population.
Armed rebellions: oles organized uprisings against foreign rule, keeping the spirit of nationalism alive despite suppression.

8. Explain the contribution of Giuseppe Mazzini in spreading revolutionary ideas in Europe.

Ans : Giuseppe Mazzini contributed to the spread of revolutionary ideas by:

Founding organizations like Young Italy and Young Europe to promote republicanism and the unification of nation-states.
Advocating for democratic republics and opposing monarchical systems.
Inspiring revolutionaries in countries like Germany, France, Switzerland, and Poland with his vision of a unified and free Europe.

9. Describe any three reforms introduced by Napoleon in the territories he conquered.

Napoleon introduced several reforms in the territories he conquered, including:

Administrative and judicial reforms: e established efficient administrative systems and standardized laws, often based on the Napoleonic Code.
Abolition of feudalism and serfdom: apoleon abolished feudal privileges, promoting equality before the law.
Economic reforms: e improved infrastructure, standardized weights and measures, and promoted trade and industry.

10. How did the idea of liberal nationalism develop in Europe?

Ans : Liberal nationalism in Europe developed as a movement advocating for individual freedoms, representative government, and the rule of law. It emerged in response to autocratic monarchies and sought to establish nation-states based on common cultural and linguistic identities. The French Revolution played a pivotal role in spreading liberal nationalist ideas, inspiring movements across the continent that aimed to overthrow oppressive regimes and establish democratic societies.

11. What was the significance of the Treaty of Vienna (1815)?

Ans : The Treaty of Vienna, signed in 1815, aimed to restore the pre-Napoleonic order in Europe. It sought to reestablish conservative regimes, redraw the map of Europe to balance power, and suppress nationalist movements. Key provisions included the restoration of monarchies, the creation of a German Confederation under Austrian leadership, and the establishment of a balance of power to prevent any single nation from dominating Europe.

12. How did culture play a role in shaping European nationalism?

Ans: Culture, encompassing art, poetry, music, and folklore, played a crucial role in fostering nationalist sentiments. Romantic artists and poets emphasized emotions, intuition, and the shared cultural heritage of people. For instance, Johann Gottfried Herder, a German philosopher, emphasized the importance of folk culture in nation-building. Collecting and promoting local folklore, folk dances, and traditions helped in instilling a sense of shared identity and history among people.

13. What were the main objectives of the Congress of Vienna?

Ans: The Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) had several key objectives:

Restore the old order and reestablish conservative regimes that had been overthrown by Napoleon.
Redraw the map of Europe to balance power and prevent future French aggression.
Suppress the rise of nationalism and liberalism to maintain the status quo.
Create a framework for resolving future disputes and maintaining peace in Europe.

14. Describe the role of women in nationalist struggles during the 19th century.

Ans: Women actively participated in nationalist movements across Europe. They organized political associations, founded newspapers, and took part in demonstrations. Despite their involvement, they were often denied political rights and the right to vote. For example, in the Frankfurt Parliament of 1848, women were admitted to the assembly but as observers only, highlighting the gender inequalities of the time.

15. What was the main aim of the French revolutionaries?

Ans: The main aim of the French revolutionaries was to create a sense of collective identity among the French people. They proclaimed that it was the people who would constitute the nation and shape its decisions.

16. What is the meaning of concentration camps?

Ans: Concentration camps are prisons where people are detained and tortured without due process of law..

17. What was the impact of the Frankfurt Parliament of 1848?

Ans : The Frankfurt Parliament was an assembly of German states' representatives who met in 1848 to draft a constitution for a unified Germany. Although it proposed a constitutional monarchy under the Prussian king, the king rejected the offer, leading to the parliament's dissolution. The failure of the Frankfurt Parliament demonstrated the limitations of liberal movements and the challenges of unifying Germany through democratic means alone.

18. Who was Giuseppe Mazzini?

Ans : Giuseppe Mazzini (1807-1872) was an Italian politician, journalist, and activist for the unification of Italy. He spearheaded the Italian revolutionary movement and envisioned a united, free, and independent Italy.

19. How did the concept of a nation-state emerge in Europe?

Ans : The concept of a nation-state emerged in Europe as people began to identify with shared cultural, linguistic, and historical traits, leading to the desire for self-governance. The decline of multi-ethnic empires and the spread of nationalist ideas, especially after the French Revolution, contributed to the formation of nation-states. This process often involved unifying fragmented territories into a single nation, as seen in the cases of Germany and Italy.

20. What were the consequences of the unification of Germany in 1871?

Ans : The unification of Germany in 1871 had significant consequences:

It altered the balance of power in Europe, with Germany emerging as a dominant military and industrial force.
The new German Empire adopted aggressive foreign policies, contributing to tensions that eventually led to World War I.
Internally, unification under Prussian dominance led to the centralization of authority and the suppression of regional identities.

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